The study of Earth's climate system — its drivers, variability, and the consequences of anthropogenic forcing.

Climate science navigates tensions between scientific communication and political pressure, between urgency and epistemic honesty about uncertainty, and between global responsibility and national self-interest.

The Quranic frame of mizan (cosmic balance) and fasad (corruption of the natural order) provides a theological basis for climate ethics that predates and complements modern environmental science. The tradition's concept of intergenerational responsibility — obligations to those not yet born — is structurally embedded in Islamic inheritance and stewardship ethics.